Biography of Murasaki Shikibu

Murasaki Shikibu  (c.  976-978 - c. 1026-1031) is known for  writing what is considered the worlds first novel, The Tale of Genji. Shikibu was a  novelist and a court attendant of Empress Akiko of Japan. Also known as Lady Murasaki, her real name is not known. Murasaki means violet and may have been taken from a character in  The Tale of Genji.   Early Life Murasaki Shikibu was born a member of the cultured Fujiwara family of Japan. A paternal great-grandfather had been a poet, as was her father, Fujiwara Tamatoki. She was educated alongside her brother, including learning Chinese and writing. Personal Life Murasaki Shikibu was married to another member of the extensive Fujiwara family, Fujiwara Nobutaka, and they had a daughter in 999. Her husband died in 1001. She lived quietly until 1004, when her father became governor of the province of Echizen.   The Tale of Genji Murasaki Shikibu was brought to the Japanese imperial court, where she attended the Empress Akiko, Emperor Ichijos consort. For two years, from about 1008, Murasaki recorded in a diary what happened at court and what she thought about what happened. She used some of what shed recorded in this diary to write a fictional account of a prince named Genji —and therefore the first known novel. The book, which covers four generations through Genjis grandson, was probably meant to be read aloud to her main audience, women. Later Years After the emperor Ichijo died in 1011, Murasaki retired, perhaps to a convent. Legacy The book  The Tale of Genji  was translated into English by Arthur Waley in 1926.

What Makes A Good Leader - 845 Words

Significance If you do not truly love what you are doing you are not going to convince anyone else to love it either. A good leader has to be strong in their convictions and confident in themselves and their teams. Everyone needs encouragement especially when it comes to giving it your all for the company. By providing a good reward system you are fostering good conversations of feeling appreciated and needed on these projects. It will make employees want to do well not only to impress you, but to impress those who may hold future roles for them. Application I always thought that monetary gifts are the most impressive form of appreciation, however, through this module I have found out that a simple thank you can move mountains as well. I am going to give out more of those to my team to show my appreciation on a regular basis. Other Modules Module One What interested me in this module were the different types of brainstorming activities that are available to bring teams closer. This ties into module nine by showing the importance of team cohesiveness and the ability of the leader to encourage this type of collaboration. The book â€Å"A Systems Approach to Small Group Interaction,† says that brainstorming creates platforms for the individuals to bring their ideas to a group discussion (Tubbs, p. 294). This can either be done at a meeting or the leader can solicit advice from individuals via email. If it works, the leader recognizes this person to everyone, if it doesShow MoreRelatedWhat Makes A Leader A Good Leader? Essay1528 Words   |  7 PagesWhat makes a leader a good leader? If being a leader was an easy task, then anyone would become a leader. In order for an individual to rise above others and become a good leader, they need to acquire a few personal skills and characteristics. A common belief is tha t a good leader must have high intellectual abilities and technical skills in order to be successful. However; according to Daniel Goleman, there is a good relationship between the emotional intelligence of a leader and the effectivenessRead MoreWhat Makes A Good Leader?1377 Words   |  6 Pagesas a human being. Without great leaders to help instill and create a sense of direction, I believe society world will be stagnant. I believe there is a variety type of the leaders such as, good leaders and bad leaders. A good leader must have several qualities. These qualities should not be taken likely and must be able to possess qualities like having good morals, such as integrity which will set the example for their subordinate. In addition to being a good leader, you must have a strong mindsetRead MoreWhat Makes A Good Leader?961 Words   |  4 Pagesshould also be able to delegate by understanding group behavior and knowing what makes a good leader. They can do this first by recognizi ng their own leadership traits and management style. 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I have rarely been a real leader so far in my career; th erefore my definition of leadership, to a large extent, comes from a non-leader perspective and may vary with someone who is a leader. A leader, in my opinion, is someone who can gather a group of people and guide them towards a specificRead MoreWhat Makes a Good Leader?1087 Words   |  4 PagesLeadership what makes a good leader? Does whatever the leader engage in have an impact on its team? To me what makes a good leader is someone who can show people how to be better and do honorable acts. It is like being a role model to someone. Whatever you do can be taken the wrong way and since you’re the leader people will follow so you have to do right. Does the police commissioner hold these qualities? 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The Fair Work Commission

Question: Write an essay onThe fair work commission organisation. Answer: Introduction: This report deals with the relationship between the pay and performance regarding the business of an organisation. It reflects that how an organisation can be benefitted by the performance of its employees. It also reflects that, providing incentives to the employees can enhance their work performance.It is seen that the employees performance in an organisation are highly dependent on the payment they receive for providing service to their company. An organisation always tries to squeeze an individual and to acquire as many benefits possible. It always tries to pay the minimum amount and tries to maximize its benefit. Paying incentives is a kind of trick for which an individual always try to exert more effort for his/her organisation (Rolstadas, 2012). It is not always fruitful but yes, paying incentives and higher salary help to achieve more production in an organisation. As far as the issue related to the association between pay and performance is concerned, this report will clearl y demonstrate all the aspects of pay and performance. A. Fair work Commission; Background and Purpose: The fair work commission organisation in Australia deals with the workplace relation issues in the country. The commission was established by the Australian government in 2009 when the Fair Work Act was developed. It includes some employment-related settings and factors like minimum wage fixation, unfair dismissal, dispute resolution etc. Currently, this commission is playing the role of both the workplace authority in Australia and Fair Pay Commission as well (FWC, 2016). The main reason behind creating this body was to improve the industrial relationships. The Fair Work Act covers all issues related to the industrial relationships and employment. The members of the FWC are located in Sydney, Adelaide, Perth, and Brisbane (Australia Government, 2016).This body locates whether an employee of an organisation in Australia is receiving his/her payment properly or not. It helps people by informing them about Australias latest workplace related regulations (Beer, Maude, Pritchard, 2003). As a result, the employees can save themselves from any workplace harassments. This body imposes a penalty on the parties who miss-utilize the services of the employee. It documents the complaint of the employees who has been cheated and then it closely monitors those claims whether it is correct or not. Then it takes necessary steps to solve the issue.The objective of this report is to evaluate the relationship between the pay and performance. So that, the authority can assess whether to emphasise. It clears out the area where improvement is needed in order to get better work performance from the employees. If better payment can enhance countrys production from different sectors, then obviously it should be monitored. The goal of this authority is to implement a sustainable workplace relationship in different sectors. B. Literature Review: Cahuc Zylberberg (2004), have stated regarding the theory of labour supply. It states that the labours sacrifice their enjoyment in leisure time and utilise the time by working more in order to earn more money (Cahuc Zylberberg, 2004). Certainly, they will receive more payment by exerting excessive efforts but they have to sacrifice their relaxation during leisure time. It indirectly decreases their utility. The curve of labour supply is generally derived from the labour-leisure trade off. As much as money the individuals receive, they try to exert more effort to earn more and more money. So that, they can earn incentives for providing service for an hour extra. Now when the discussion comes to the type of good this leisure time is, the analysis always gets diverse factors. If it is a normal good, then income will increase if its demand increases. For instance, if an individual earns high then he does not need to sacrifice his/her leisure time. Instead of sacrificing, that individu al will prefer enjoying it. The labour supply curve will be sloped upward if income effect is weaker then substitution effect. In the opposite case, the reverse will happen i.e. the labour supply curve intends to bend backward. Marxian economists claim that in the case of a capitalist economy, where people need money badly, this culture is on. Efficiency Wage Theory Efficiency wage theory describes the payment of wages higher than the marginal revenue product of the workers in order to increase their productivity. The above diagram shows the supply of labour and supply of work units. In a short period of time supply of labour is fixed shown by vertical line SS. Below the minimum wage, there would be no work. Only after a minimum wage of OA, the number of units of work increases shown by AS which is rising upward (Akerlof Yellen, 1986). Mankiw (2011), stated that efficiency wage theory is profitable as higher wage might increase the efficiency of the workers. First wage theory shows the relationship between wages and workers health. Higher wages help workers to consume a nutritious diet and it keeps them healthy. Also, it increases their productivity. Secondly, wage theory relates wage to worker turnover. Increased wage reduces the turnover of workers to other firms. A worker can quit his/her job if he/she does not receive a higher payment. If t hey receive higher payment then chances of quitting the company will reduce. It is beneficial for the firms also because hiring and training new people is costlier. The third one emphasises the link between workers quality and wage. Paying higher wages helps in improving quality. The 4th theory is sociological which states that higher wages increase the workers loyalty towards the firm. Union threat is the 5th model in which higher wage prevents unionisation (Mankiw, 2011). Katz (1986), said that there is the prevalence of inter-industry wage differences for similar work. This may arise due to the difference in the wage-productivity in different industries (Katz, 1986). He argues that the reasons may be the labour quality which cannot be measured. Compensating differentials, labour immobility are not transitory. The model, however, fails to explain the relation between industry wage and its profits. It is also not able to explain the inverse relationship between skill and unemployme nt. It fails to explain the reason behind the wage rate differences prevailing among the same post in different industries (Akerlof Yellen, 1988). The net revenue increases with increase in wage but after a certain wage, the revenue doesnt increase even with increased units of work. As such beyond a point, the net revenue decreases with increase in the wage rate. Pay-Performance Structure: Pay for performance can be explained as the wages should be paid according to a work, performed by a worker, firm or a team within a given period of time. This pay structure may be beneficial for workers. Singh (2015), debated that performance-based pay is result oriented rather than development oriented. It is not a qualitative measurement, instead, is quantitative. Pay based on performance is usually done for a fixed period of time (Singh, 2015). Lazear (1996), proposes that as the wages of the worker increases, their performance increases through an increase in productivity (Lazear, 1996). An average grade worker produces more in the case of increased incentives. Also, there is a reduction in turnover. Workers may be paid based on the hourly wages or on the piece rate. In hourly wages, there is a minimum level of output per hour (e). The utility function of worker is given as:Utility = Income C (e)/A where, C (e) is homogeneous cost function. A measures the ability of worker. Thi s shows at a given level of output, individuals with higher level of ability have low production cost (Lazear, 1996).However, it is not easy to measure a job but the subjective metrics of performance pay is successful in measuring that. For instance, the measurement can be done on the basis of teamwork, professionalism or service to the customer.An objective measure is not more suitable than subjective because it is able to measure when employees are directly assessed. Even in a complicated situation, the subjective metrics allow a manager to assess its employees. There is one drawback that the subjective measurement brings issues in the situation. If the relationship between the manager and its employee is not smooth then the employee may receive negative feedback from the manager. Guaranteed pay is something which fixed and received by an employee from its employer while the variable pay is not fixed. People who work on the full-time basis, always expect for a fixed pay because it is suitable for their standard of living criterion. People who like to work from home or freelancing, receive payment on a contractual basis which is not fixed. They receive payment only for the output they produce on a fixed rate basis. Bonus pay is attractive and successful in motivating the employees. Spot bonus is one of them and it is given when an employee perform extraordinarily (Cardy Leonard, 2014). Spot bonus is very respectable reward and it is always given to the managers, works in multinationals like Google, Apple etc. (Guest, Paauwe, Wright, 2012). Referral bonus is getting very famous day by day. It is given when an employee recommends candidates and earns a bonus when the candidate is selected. They receive the payment when the recommended candidate joins the organisation. It is very famous in call centres and IT sectors. Signing bonus usually is given to the people who have some unique skill or to the individual whom the organisation wants to be joined. IT worker s used to receive these type of bonus (Guest, Paauwe, Wright, 2012).Similarly, the penalty is also effective in driving employees behaviour and the manner in a right way. Withholding of increments is imposed on workers when they do not behave properly (Lazear, 1996). Its a kind of seldom penalty. Fines are imposed when mistakes happen from employees end after giving warnings. Also, it may increase motivation among workers to produce more as they have the opportunity to earn more. Withholding of salary is imposed when an employee resigns without any notice and without serving the notice period. This kind of penalties is imposed frequently by the organizations these days (International Labour Organization, 2003).There is a rise in average output per worker and average ability of worker when a switch is done from hourly wages to piece rate. The calculation of hourly wage is easier compared to piece rate. The quality may suffer in case of paying piece. In many firms, the piece rate may rather be more cost effective as the payment is done only for work done (Poon, 2016). General Labour Supply and Demand: The demand curve for labour is derived from the demand of products. If the demand for commodities increases, then the demand for labour will also increase. The supply curve of labour refers to the number of workers available for employment. Supply of labour is in respect of industry as well as an economy. The wage rate is determined by the demand and Supply of labour. It can be shown with the help of the following diagram:Itshows that wage rate We that is determined by the interaction of the labour demand curve DD and the supply curve of labour SS. Quantity of labour is determined at Qe. In the long run under the competitive condition, the wage rate will be equal to both the average and the marginal revenue product. Firms will earn a supernormal profit if average revenue product is more than the wage rate and as such there will be the entry of new firms. If, Average revenue product wage rate, the firm incur losses.Smith (2003), explains that reduced wages might lead to a decrease in the productivity of the output as the number of working hours would be reduced by the labourers. Thus, there would be a contraction in labour supply due to fall in the real wage (Smith, 2003). As the working hours of the labour increase then the wage and the supply of labour will also increase. Thus, equilibrium wage rate would be determined where labour demand equals labour supply. Related Practical Examples: Achieving higher production by paying higher incentives is becoming a new trend or strategy of the organizations. It seems that motivational theory is made to get the effort to be exerted more and more. Related Company: The Dolphin Logistic Company is trying to expand its business in the global market of Singapore (Huat, Lim, Chen, 2004). Research claims that the company had to improve its performance management system and need to introduce the reward system to motivate its employees. In due courses, it can be said that by implementing performance-based pay system the company can become successful in improving their performance status (Dolphin-GP, 2016). Relation to the theories: The company also can employ the efficiency wage theory. As far as the efficiency wage theory reveals that the theory is highly effective in enhancing workforce. The general theory of demandsupply concentrates a small hint that organizations nurture their wage offerings if they require more contenders, or if they need fewer of them when excessive applicants are existing than wanted (Dolphin-GP, 2016). The theory highlights the costs and benefits trade-offs convoluted in shifting the level of wage.The employee will be benefitted by several bonuses elaborated above and will be penalized for not to be disciplined in the workplace. By the subjective measurement approach employees are properly assessed by the managers even if the situation is complicated. With the help of the objective measurement, employees are directly assessed by their immediate manager.Likewise, the employees of the organizations is already highly motivated by the association so they always exerts extra hours of work t o the companys production. They assess their ownselves by judging customers feedback time to time. They assess their own efforts. In a way, they can make themselves better for the organizations. All were started in early 2015 when the authority had decided to improve the sector and starts paying rewards in order to motivate the employees. Recommendations: Along with the reward system or performance based pay structure, several motivational activities may support more to enhance the performance in workplaces. It is seen from the discussion that each of the following theories provide some way to extract extraordinary performance from the employees. The main theme of those theories is to provide different types of incentive to achieve a better outcome. Bonus pays like performance incentives, yearly bonus can be given to motivate employees more. It is seen that by offering a bonus, the companies become successful in acquiring more output from the employees. Whereas penalties keep the workplace disciplined and the employee feels costlier to break a rule. It makes a workplace tidy and disciplined. So, apart from the normal pay and training, different types of bonus should be provided to motivate employees. Conclusion: It can be concluded from above research that, the wage theories are very useful to improve a business from all end. The practical implementation of these theories plays major role in influencing the production of an originisation. However, no theories are perfect and it needed to be perfect in case of reality. This gap demands another theory to be entered. Workplace issues are major and cannot be managed by applying few theories. It needs experience and as well vast analysis of the labour supply and demand related matters. References Akerlof, G., Yellen, J. (1986). Efficiency Wage Models of the Labor Market. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Akerlof, G., Yellen, J. (1988). Fairness and Unemployment. The American Economic Review, 78(2), 44-49.Australia Government. (2016). Fair Work Commission. Retrieved 07 19, 2016, from https://www.australia.gov.au/directories/australia/fwcBeer, A., Maude, A., Pritchard, W. (2003). Developing Australia's Regions: Theory Practice. Australia: UNSW Press.Cahuc, P., Zylberberg, A. (2004). Labor Economics. Cambridge: MIT Press.Cardy, R., Leonard, B. (2014). Performance Management: Concepts, Skills, and Exercises. London: Routledge.Dolphin-GP. (2016). Global Logistics Services. Retrieved 06 09, 2016, from https://www.dolphin-gp.com/global-logistics-operations.phpFWC. (2016). About us. Retrieved 07 19, 2016, from https://www.fwc.gov.au/about-usGuest, D., Paauwe, J., Wright, P. (2012). HRM and Performance: Achievements and Challenges. Hoboken: John Wiley Sons.Huat, T., Lim, J ., Chen, W. (2004). Competing International Financial Centers: A Comparative Study between Hong Kong and Singapore. Singapore: Centre for Financial Studies and ISEAS.International Labour Organization. (2003). Best Practices in Work-flexibility Schemes and Their Impact on the Quality of Working Life in the Chemical Industries . Geneva: International Labour Office.Katz, L. (1986). Efficiency wage theories: A partial evaluation. NBER Macroeconomics Annual , 1, 235-290.Lazear, P. (1996). Performance Pay and Productivity. National Bureau of Economic Research, 1-36.Mankiw, N. (2011). Principles of Economics (6th ed.). Mason: South-Western Cengage Learning.Poon, D. (2016). Economic and Trade Information on Hong Kong. Retrieved 06 09, 2016, from https://hong-kong-economy-research.hktdc.com/business-news/article/Market-Environment/Economic-and-Trade-Information-on-Hong-Kong/etihk/en/1/1X000000/1X09OVUL.htmRolstadas, A. (2012). Performance Management: A business process benchmarking approach . London: Springer Science Business Media.Singh, B. (2015). Compensation and Reward Management (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Excel books.Smith, S. (2003). Labour Economics (2nd ed.). Abingdon: Routledge.

Makabayan E.P.P Subject Essay Sample free essay sample

1. Tokyo TowerTokyo Tower is taller that the Eiffel Tower and is the tallest construction in Japan. Its pigment and visible radiations are designed to do the tower glow a superb gold at dark. 2. Roppongi Hills Designed as a metropolis within a metropolis. Roppongi hills incorporates offices. abodes. shopping. hotels. Parkss. art galleries and amusement. Located on some of the most expensive land in Japan. it took the developer 14 old ages to aquire the 400 separate tonss for the 27 estates of the site. When it foremost opened the edifice was the talk of the town and received 1000000s of visitants. 3. Tokyo City Hall Tokyo City Hall was the tallest edifice in Tokyo before Midtown was completed in 2007. With a monetary value ticket of about $ 1 Billion US. it is a all right illustration of Tokyo government’s gusto for passing money and has earned the nickname â€Å"tax tower† . It is a huge composite taking up three metropolis blocks. We will write a custom essay sample on Makabayan E.P.P Subject Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It has a free observation deck that is popular with tourers. 4. Prada Building Located in the Omotesando shopping territory. the Prada Building is merely 6 floors high but gives the feeling of being shaped wholly of glass. 5. Mode Gakuen Cocoon TowerHousing a manner. design and medical school the Gakuen Cocoon Tower is the 2nd tallest educational edifice in the universe. It’s cocoon design stands out in Shinjuku’s colossal concern territory. 6. Dentsu edifice Corporate central office of Dentsu. Japan’s largest and most esteemed advertisement bureau. the Dentsu edifice has 70 lifts including private lifts for executives. The Dentsu edifice is located in Shiodome. a monolithic new concern territory built on the old site of Tokyo’s foremost train station. 7. Midtown edifice The tallest edifice in Tokyo prefecture. Midtown is a monolithic composite of offices. shopping and includes a big medical clinic. luxury hotel and art gallery. The edifices themselves are non all that visually interesting. 8. Docomo edifice The Docomo edifice in Shibuya is the world’s largest clock tower. It is owned by Japan’s largest telecom company NTT and houses a few offices and a batch of telecom equipment. It has no shopping or eating houses and is non unfastened to the populace. 9. Izumi Garden Tower Massive and modern Izumi Garden Tower has typical bluish green glass. It has office infinite. a luxury abode. shopping and eating houses. 10. Fuji Terebi Building Headquarterss of the Fuji Television Network in Odaiba. The building’s telecasting studios have sing Windowss and Tourss of the edifice are popular. The spherical portion of the edifice is a metropolis observation deck. Juto Oido of Old Tenzuiji Built in 1591 during Momoyama Period. and moved in 1905 during the Meiji Era. this edifice was originally built on the premises of daitokuji of Kyoto by Hideyoshi Toyotomi. who was one of the most celebrated shoguns in Nipponese history. to incorporate a juto. a rock memorial to wish for his mother’s wellness and long life. Matsuyama palace is one of the biggest palaces in Japan. This palace is built on Mt. Katsuyama. the centre of Matsuyama metropolis. It took approximately 250 old ages to finish constructing the palace. The completion of the palace is 1858. it is the following twelvemonth of Commodore Perry’s black ship coming. So. Matsuyama palace is the latest palace in Japan. St. John’s Church in Kyoto. : Museum Meijimura T was built as a church of The Anglican Church in Japan. The first floor is made of bricks. the 2nd floor is made of wood. and the roof is tiled with a sheet Cu. These are inventivenesss to do the church quakeproof. The first floor was for Sunday school and the kindergarten. whilst the 2nd floor was the hall.

Learning Theory Application in Classroom Essays

Learning Theory Application in Classroom Essays Learning Theory Application in Classroom Paper Learning Theory Application in Classroom Paper PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING (ED504) MODULE 2: MAIN ASSESSMENT QUESTION 2: Imagine you are on your break hour at school and you walked into the staff lounge to discover Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson and Kohlberg are there. Their conversation is about learning and development. Write a paper tracing the conversation between each of these theorists. Be sure to accurately reflect the stance that each theorist would take. What would be the implications of any one of the theorist as a teacher and how could the theory be applied to the classroom? VTDI) This Paper is in Partial Completion Fulfilment of a POST-GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING Date: October 13, 2011 Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson and Kohlberg individually expounded their views on learning and development as outlined below. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory consists of four stages of intellectual development. Stage 1- Sensorimotor Stage. Birth to age 2. The child recognises self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally. The child realises that things continue to exist even when no longer present to the sense. Stage 2- Preoperational Stage Age 2-7. Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words. Children learn through imitation and play during this stage. They begin to use reasoning; however it is mainly intuitive, instead of logical. Stage 3- Concrete Operational Stage Age 7- 11. Can thinks logically about objects and events. However this is confined to their level. Stage 4- Formal Operational Stage Age 11-adulthood. Can think logically about conceptual scheme and test hypotheses systematically. Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development shows that personality emerges from a series of conflicts. These conflicts arise at eight stages over the entire life cycle. These crises if resolve or unresolved can result in a greater sense of self or can lead to maladjustment respectively. Below is an outline of the steps and psychosocial interactions involved. Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to Year). Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. Autonomy vs. Shame (2-3 years). Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschooler , 4-5years). Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Industry vs. Inferiority (School-Age Child, 6-11years). Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescent, 12-18 years). Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adult 18-35 years). Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle-aged Adult, 35-65 years). At this stage the middle adult needs to work to establish stability and attempt to produce something that makes a difference to society. Integrity vs. Despair (Older Adult, over 65years). Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfilment. Lawrence Kohlberg concludes that morality develops in stages. Kohlbergs six stages can be more generally grouped into three levels of two stages each which are outlined below. Level 1 (Pre-Conventional). This is generally found at the elementary school level. Stage 1: Obedience and punishment orientation. People behave according to socially acceptable norms. This obedience is forced by the threat or application of punishment. Stage 2: Self-interest orientation. This stage is characterized by a view that right behaviour means acting in ones own best interests Level 2 (Conventional). This is generally found in society. Stage 3: Interpersonal accord and compliance, is regarded as an attitude which seeks to do what will gain the approval of others. Stage 4: Authority and social-order maintaining orientation. This stage is one adjusted to abiding by the law and responding to the obligations of duty. Level 3 (Post-Conventional). It is felt that this is not reached by the majority of adults. Stage5. Social contract orientation. Is an understanding of social support and a genuine interest in the welfare of others. Stage 6. Universal ethical principles. Is based on respect for universal principle and the demands of individual conscience Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). His major themes are outlined below: 1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development.. He states: â€Å"Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). † (Vygotsky, 1978). 2. Anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept can serve as a guide to support cognitive growth. 3. According to Vygotsky, the Zone of Proximal Development is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. Vygotsky believes, learning occurred in this zone. The implications of Vygotsky’s theory for the teacher are that it promotes learning in the contexts where students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning development in students. Knowing both levels of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development is useful for teachers, for these levels indicate where the child is at a given moment as well as where the child is going. According to Vygotsky, for the curriculum to be developmentally appropriate, the teacher must plan activities that encompass not only what children are capable of doing on their own but what they can learn with the help of others (Karpov Haywood, 1998). Vygotsky’s theory can be applied in the classroom. Vygotsky’s theory does not mean that anything can be taught to any child. Only instruction and activities that fall within the zone promote development. For example, if a child cannot identify the sounds in a word even after many prompts, the child may not benefit immediately from instruction in this skill. Practice of previously known skills and introduction of concepts that are too difficult and complex have little positive impact. Teachers can use information about both levels of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development in organizing classroom activities in the following ways: Instruction can be planned to provide practice in the zone of proximal development for individual children or for groups of hildren. Scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, Ross, 1976) is a tactic for helping the child in his or her zone of proximal development in which the adult provides hints and prompts at different levels. † (Wood, Bruner, Ross, 1976). For example In a high school laboratory science class, a teacher might provide scaffolding by first giving students detailed guides to carrying out experiments, then giving them brief outlines that they might use to structure experiments, and finally asking them to set up experiments entirely on their own. Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at different levels who can help each other learn. I can be conclude therefore, that a careful application of the theories put forward by these researchers will greatly enhance learning in the classroom References Atherton J S (2011) Learning and Teaching; Piagets developmental theory [On-line: UK] retrieved 8 October 2011 from learningandteaching. info/learning/piaget. htm Crawford, K. (1996) Vygotskian approaches to human development in the information era. Educational Studies in Mathematics. (31) 43-62. Karpov, Y. , Haywood, H. C. (1998). Two ways to elaborate Vygotskys concept of mediation: Implications for instruction. American Psychologist, 53(1), 27-36. Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2011, October). Erikson’s Stages of Development at Learning-Theories. com. Retrieved October 8th, 2011 from learning-theories. com/eriksons-stages-of-development. html Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2011, October). Social Development Theory (Vygotsky) at Learning-Theories. com. Retrieved October 8th, 2011 from learning-theories. com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory. html Robert N. Barger, Ph. D. (2000) A Summary of Lawerence Kohlbergs, Stages of Moral Development retrieved October 7th, 2011 from csudh. edu/dearhabermas/kohlberg01bk. htm . Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wood, D. J. , Bruner, J. S. , Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychology, 17(2), 89-100

Clovis, Black Mats, and Extra-Terrestrials

Clovis, Black Mats, and Extra-Terrestrials Black mat is the common name for an organic-rich layer of soil also called sapropelic silt, peaty muds, and paleo-aquolls. Its content is variable, and its appearance is variable, and it is at the heart of a controversial theory known as the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis (YDIH). The YDIH argues that black mats, or at least some of them, represent the remains of a cometary impact thought by its proponents to have kicked off the Younger Dryas. What is the Younger Dryas? The Younger Dryas (abbreviated YD), or Younger Dryas Chronozone (YDC), is the name of a brief geological period which occurred roughly between 13,000 and 11,700 calendar years ago (cal BP). It was the last episode of a series of fast-developing climatic changes that occurred at the end of the last Ice Age. The YD came after the Last Glacial Maximum (30,000–14,000 cal BP), which is what scientists call the last time glacial ice covered much of the Northern Hemisphere as well as higher elevations in the south. Immediately after the LGM, there was a warming trend, known as the Bà ¸lling-Ã…llerà ¸d period, during which time the glacial ice retreated. That warming period lasted about 1,000 years, and today we know that it marks the start of the Holocene, the geological period which we are still experiencing today. During the warmth of the Bà ¸lling-Ã…llerà ¸d, all kinds of human exploration and innovation developed, from the domestications of plants and animals to the colonization of the American continents. The Younger Dryas was an abrupt, 1,300-year return to the tundra-like cold, and it must have been a nasty shock to the Clovis hunter-gatherers in North America as well as Europes Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. Cultural Impact of the YD Along with a substantial drop in temperature, the sharp challenges of the YD include the Pleistocene megafauna extinctions. The large-bodied animals that disappeared between 15,000 and 10,000 years ago include mastodons, horses, camels, sloths, dire wolves, tapir, and short-faced bear. The North American colonists at the time called Clovis were primarily- but not exclusively- dependent on hunting that game, and the loss of the megafauna led them to reorganize their lifeways into a broader Archaic hunting-and-gathering lifestyle. In Eurasia, the descendants of  hunters and gatherers began domesticating plants and animals- but thats another story. YD Climate Shift in North America The following is a summary of the cultural changes that are documented in North America around the time of the Younger Dryas, from most recent to oldest. It is based on a summary compiled by an early proponent of the YDIH, C. Vance Haynes, and it is a reflection of current understanding of the cultural changes. Haynes was never fully convinced that the YDIH was a reality, but he was intrigued by the possibility. Archaic. 9,000–10,000 RCYBP. Drought conditions prevailed, during which Archaic mosaic hunter-gatherer lifestyles predominate.Post-Clovis. (black mat layer) 10,000–10,900 RCYBP (or 12,900 calibrated years BP). Wet conditions are in evidence at the sites of springs and lakes. No megafauna except for bison. Post-Clovis cultures include Folsom, Plainview, Agate Basin hunter-gatherers.Clovis stratum. 10,850–11,200 RCYBP. Drought conditions prevalent. Clovis sites found with now-extinct mammoth, mastodon, horses, camels, and other megafauna at springs and lake margins.Pre-Clovis stratum. 11,200–13,000 RCYBP. By 13,000 years ago, water tables had fallen to their lowest levels since the Last Glacial Maximum. Pre-Clovis is rare, stable uplands, eroded valley sides. The Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis The YDIH suggests that the climatic devastations of the Younger Dryas were the result of a major cosmic episode of multiple airbursts/impacts about 12,800 /-300 cal bp. There is no impact crater known for such an event, but proponents argued that it could have occurred over the North American ice shield. That cometary impact would have created wildfires and that and the climate impact are proposed to have produced the black mat, triggered the YD, contributed to the end-Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions and initiated human population reorganization across the Northern Hemisphere. The YDIH adherents have argued that black mats hold the key evidence for their cometary impact theory. What is a Black Mat? Black mats are organic-rich sediments and soils that form in wet environments associated with spring discharge. They are found throughout the world in these conditions, and they are abundant in Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene stratigraphic sequences throughout central and western North America. They form in a wide variety of soils and sediment types, including organic-rich grassland soils, wet-meadow soils, pond sediments, algal mats, diatomites, and marls. Black mats also contain a variable assemblage of magnetic and glassy spherules, high-temperature minerals and melt glass, nano-diamonds, carbon spherules, aciniform carbon, platinum, and osmium. The presence of this last set is what the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis adherents have used to back up their Black Mat theory. Conflicting Evidence The problem is: there is no evidence for a continent-wide wildfire and devastation event. There definitely is a dramatic increase in the number and frequency of black mats throughout the Younger Dryas, but thats not the only time in our geological history when black mats have occurred. Megafaunal extinctions were abrupt, but not that abrupt- the extinction period lasted several thousands of years. And it turns out the black mats are variable in content: some have charcoal, some have none. By and large, they seem to be naturally-formed wetland deposits, found full of the organic remains of rotted, not burned, plants. Microspherules, nano-diamonds, and fullerenes are all part of the cosmic dust that falls to earth every day. Finally, what we now know is that the Younger Dryas cold event is not unique. In fact, there were as many as 24 abrupt switches in climate, called Dansgaard-Oeschger cold spells. Those happened during the end of the Pleistocene as the glacial ice melted back, thought to be the results of changes in the Atlantic Oceans current as it, in turn, adapted to changes in the volume of ice present and water temperature. Summary The black mats are not likely evidence of a cometary impact, and the YD was one of several colder and warmer periods during the end of the last Ice Age that resulted from shifting conditions. What seemed at first like a brilliant and succinct explanation for a devastating climate change turned out on further investigation to be not nearly as succinct as we thought. Thats a lesson scientists learn all the time- that science doesnt come as neat and tidy as we can think it to be. The unfortunate thing is that neat and tidy explanations are so satisfying that we all- scientists and the public alike- fall for them every time. Science is a slow process, but even though some theories dont pan out, we still must pay attention when a preponderance of evidence points us in the same direction. Sources Ardelean, Ciprian F., et al. The Younger Dryas Black Mat from Ojo De Agua, a Geoarchaeological Site in Northeastern Zacatecas, Mexico. Quaternary International 463.Part A (2018): 140–52. Print.Bereiter, Bernhard, et al. Mean Global Ocean Temperatures During the Last Glacial Transition. Nature 553 (2018): 39. Print.Broecker, Wallace S., et al. Putting the Younger Dryas Cold Event into Context. Quaternary Science Reviews 29.9 (2010): 1078–81. Print.Firestone, R. B., et al. Evidence for an Extraterrestrial Impact 12,900 Years Ago That Contributed to the Megafaunal Extinctions and the Younger Dryas Cooling. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104.41 (2007): 16016–21. Print.Harris-Parks, Erin. The Micromorphology of Younger Dryas-Aged Black Mats from Nevada, Arizona, Texas and New Mexico. Quaternary Research 85.1 (2016): 94–106. Print.Haynes Jr., C. Vance. Younger Dryas Black Mats and the Rancholabrean Termination in North America. Proceedings of th e National Academy of Sciences 105.18 (2008): 6520–25. Print. Holliday, Vance, Todd Surovell, and Eileen Johnson. A Blind Test of the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis. PLOS ONE 11.7 (2016): e0155470. Print.Kennett, D. J., et al. Nanodiamonds in the Younger Dryas Boundary Sediment Layer. Science 323 (2009): 94. Print.Kennett, James P., et al. Bayesian Chronological Analyses Consistent with Synchronous Age of 12,835–12,735 Cal B.P. For Younger Dryas Boundary on Four Continents. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112.32 (2015): E4344–E53. Print.Mahaney, W. C., et al. Evidence from the Northwestern Venezuelan Andes for Extraterrestrial Impact: The Black Mat Enigma. Geomorphology 116.1 (2010): 48–57. Print.Meltzer, David J., et al. Chronological Evidence Fails to Support Claim of an Isochronous Widespread Layer of Cosmic Impact Indicators Dated to 12,800 Years Ago. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111.21 (2014): E2162–71. Print.Pinter, Nicholas, et al. The Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis: A Requ iem. Earth-Science Reviews 106.3 (2011): 247–64. Print. van Hoesel, Annelies, et al. The Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis: A Critical Review. Quaternary Science Reviews 83.Supplement C (2014): 95–114. Print.

Pollution Control Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Pollution Control Policy - Essay Example Proponents and opponents of air pollution control policy now accept the protection of the public health as a political reality. The need for clean air is considered to be "a uniformly agreed-upon problem" or a "valence issue" (Baumgartner and Jones, 150). Nobody can be against the public good of clean air. Despite general agreement of the public, legislators, regulators and the regulated that clean air is important, many urban areas in the United States struggle to meet national air quality standards as the EPA continues to set stricter emission thresholds. The EPA has tracked emission levels of six criteria pollutants deemed harmful to human health - nitrogen dioxide, ground level ozone, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and lead - since 1970. However, the persistence of the ground level ozone pollutant (commonly called either smog or ozone) troubles those who wish to protect the public health. The adverse health effects of acute and chronic exposure to ozone are more fully documented each year. While levels of some criteria pollutants (i.e. lead and carbon monoxide) have declined significantly, levels of ozone and particulate matter have not (Smith, 29). The EPA determined in 1997 that 122 million Americans, or 46% of the population, lived in smog-plagued areas (D oyle, 348). The EPA reported in 2004 that 112 million people across the nation still lived in 68 metropolitan areas classified in nonattainment of the national air quality standard for ozone. Regulators describe long-term exposure to ozone levels above the threshold set by law as extremely hazardous to human health (Smith, 34). From the critical perspective, there is a pressing need to establish radically new air pollution control policy. Contemporary business practice provides some important patterns in understanding policy new direction. It is evident that due to growing compliance costs, environmental expenditures have begun to play a major role in the policymaking decisions of companies. As a result, the environment is increasingly being used as a strategic tool to reduce cost and increase competitive advantage. Adequate and effective air pollution public policy should be largely based on firms' strategic needs to economize and being competitive. BACKGROUND: CURRENT POLICY FAILURE The continuing political controversy surrounding compliance with the provisions of the Clean Air Act suggests that the problem of national air pollution control is not going away either quickly or easily. Solutions to this challenging policy problem often appear partial and ineffectual. Four reasons for impaired policy effectiveness are suggested. First, the way in which federal regulators define and measure compliance with the law may not achieve consensus among the disparate participants in the implementation process. Even when participants do work together, gamesmanship among players who do not see themselves as equals on a level playing field may interfere with moving toward the same goal. The lack of consensus may continue until all the key players hold to some expectation of a common outcome (Bardach, 85). A second reason policy effectiveness may be impaired is due to the many participants in the fragmented federal hierarchy who represent multiple decision or veto points in the